Citation Example

When you are writing a research paper, you need to tell the reader where the information came from.  Here  is a example of how to cite your sources in the text and the bibliography that goes with this example.

Number your references based on how soon you used them in the text.  Reference #1 should be the first number that you put into your document. 

 

The following paragraphs were excerpted from :

Role of Cigarette Radicals in Damage to DNA and other Biomolecules, Koni Stone and William A. Pryor.  Published in Lung Cancer:  Principles and Practice, Harvey Pass et al ed. 2004, Lippincott, NY, NY.

 

     The oxidants in smoke, including both free radicals and nonradical oxidants, damage DNA,1-13 proteins,8 and lipids.14-17  Cigarette smoke is deleterious to biological molecules and these powerful oxidants are major culprits.

     Over 4700 compounds have been identified in unfiltered mainstream tobacco smoke.  Seventy eight of these compounds have been categorized by the IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer) as potential, probable or known human carcinogens.  (See reference 18 for a complete list.)  Many of these carcinogens have been well studied and Table 3.1 gives a partial listing of them.  Much attention has been paid to NNN (N-nitrosonornicotine) and NNK (4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanol) and other nitrosamines that are derived from nicotine.  The polycylic aromatic hydrocarbons such as B[a]P (benzo[a]pyrene)  have also been the subject of many investigations.  Catechol has been implicated as a possible human carcinogen and it has been listed as an enhancing agent in lung carcinogenesis.18  Catechol and hydroquinone inhibit cell T cell proliferation by inhibiting DNA synthesis and preventing blastogenesis.19  Thus, catechol and hydroquinone may be the causative agents for the correlation between cigarette smoking and the progression of AIDS. One thing to note is that catechol is present in cigarette smoke in much larger concentrations (~50,000X) than either NNN, NNK or B[a]P.   

 

REFERENCES

1.      Kodama M, Kaneko M, Aida M, et al. Free radical chemistry of cigarette smoke and its implication in human cancer. Anticancer Res 1997;17:433.

2.      Church DF, Pryor WA. Free‑radical chemistry of cigarette smoke and its toxicological implications. Environ Health Perspect 1985;64:111.

3.      Pryor WA. Cigarette smoke and the involvement of free radical reactions in chemical carcinogenesis. Br J Cancer 1987;55[Suppl. VIII]:19.

4.      Borish ET, Pryor WA, Venugopal S, et al. DNA synthesis is blocked by cigarette tar‑induced DNA single‑strand breaks. Carcinogenesis 1987;8:1517.

5.      Church DF, Burkey TJ, Pryor WA. Preparation of human lung tissue from cigarette smokers for analysis by electron spin resonance spectroscopy. Methods Enzymol 1990;186:665.

6.      Moreno JJ, Foroozesh M, Church DF, et al. Release of iron from ferritin by aqueous extracts of cigarette smoke. Chem Res Toxicol 1992;5:116.

7.      Pryor WA, Stone K. Oxidants in cigarette smoke: radicals, hydrogen peroxide, peroxynitrate, and peroxynitrite. In: Diana J, Pryor WA, eds. Tobacco smoking and nutrition: influence of nutrition on tobacco associated health risks, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Vol. 686. New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1993:12.

8.      Evans MD, Pryor WA. An invited review: cigarette smoking, emphysema and damage to alpha-1-proteinase inhibitor. Am J Physiol (Lung Cell Mol Physiol 10) 1994;266:L593.

9.      Bermúdez E, Stone K, Carter KM, et al. Environmental tobacco smoke is just as damaging to DNA as mainstream smoke. Environ Health Perspect 1994;102:870.

10.  Stone K, Bermúdez E, Pryor WA. Aqueous extracts of cigarette tar containing the tar free radical cause DNA nicks in mammalian cells. Environ Health Perspect 1994;102:173.

11.  Stone K, Bermúdez E, Zang L‑Y, et al. The ESR properties, DNA nicking and DNA association of aged solutions of catechol versus aqueous extracts of tar from cigarette smoke. Arch Biochem Biophys 1995;319:196.

12.  Zang L‑Y, Stone K, Pryor WA. Detection of free radicals in aqueous extracts of cigarette tar by electron spin resonance. Free Radic Biol Med 1995;19:161.

13.  Pryor WA. Cigarette smoke radicals and the role of free radicals in chemical carcinogenicity. Environ Health Perspect 1997;105:875.

14.  Frei B, Forte TM, Ames BN, et al. Gas phase oxidants of cigarette smoke induce lipid peroxidation and changes in lipoprotein properties in human blood plasma. Protective effects of ascorbic acid. Biochem J 1991;277:133.

15.  Churg A, Cherukupalli K. Cigarette smoke causes rapid lipid peroxidation of rat tracheal epithelium. Int J Exp Path 1993;74:127.

16.  Lapenna D, Mezzetti A, De Gioia S, et al. Plasma copper and lipid peroxidation in cigarette smokers. Free Radic Biol Med 1995;19:849.

17.  Ueyama K, Yokode M, Arai H, et al. Cholesterol efflux effect of high‑density lipoprotein is impaired by whole cigarette smoke extracts through lipid peroxidation. Free Radic Biol Med 1998;24:182.

18.  Hoffman D, Hoffman I, El-Bayoumy K.  The less harmful cigarette: a controversial issue.  A tribute to Ernest Wynder.  Chem Res Toxicol 2001;14:767.

19.  McCue J, Lazis S, Cohen JJ, Modiano JF, Freed BM.  Hydroquinone and catechol interfere with T cell cycle entry and progression through the G1 phase.  Molecular Immunology 2003, 39:995-1001.