GETTING STARTED
Physiology is the study of how
cells, tissues and organs function. Cause-and-effect sequences, the
anatomical and physiological specializations are emphasized in studying how
animals function in their environments. These courses (Zool. 4230, 4232)
collectively are under one class title-Animal Physiology. Unlike lower
division Physiology, you do not get a grade for lab. The laboratory portion
of this course is an essential ingredient in understanding physiological
principles. The grades acquired in the lab will be added to the lecture
grade. The following guidelines should help you to understand what is
expected of you in class.
1. You must attend all classes and
labs on a regular basis. Unannounced quizzes, approximately 10% or more of
the grade, will be given in class. Bonus points may be given during these
quizzes. This is to encourage students to be prepared for class. No other
extra credit will be available in this class.
2. Be on time for class- classes
start at 8:00 a.m. Written quizzes may be given at the beginning of class.
There is no provision for you to make up missed quizzes and labs. If you
missed a lab, you cannot turn in the assignment for that lab, i.e., no
"dry" lab reports. Plagiarism (copying the work of others) is a
serious academic offense, so be sure to report your own lab results and write
your own report.
3. Lab notebook is essential.
Notes on Data collection during an experiment must be entered immediately
into a notebook. Always write down as much data as possible, including the
conditions of the animal or subject. These notes will help you understand the
different physiological concepts and ultimately an appreciation of the lab
activities. These notes may also explain why an experiment is successful or
unsuccessful.
4. Be prepared! Read the lab
manual before coming to class. Review the experiment procedures and their
objectives. Your quizzes may contain questions pertaining to the material of
the lab you are about to do. Do not rely on me to explain and guide you
through every step of the experiment. Do not rely on your lab partner; they
probably do not know what is going on either.
5. You will be working mostly in
groups of two, and in some experiments (due to the lack of equipment), groups
of three (NO more than three per group). Take an active role and participate.
Understand why and how you are collecting certain data. Interact and discuss
your methods and raw data with your fellow lab partners.
6. Turn your lab reports in on
time. All assignments are due at the end of the next lab meeting unless
otherwise stated. Some experiments may last for two or more weeks. It is your
responsibility to continue with the experiment(s) till they are finished.
Some experiments may take more than one week to finish. Late lab reports are
penalized 5 points a day. All assignments are due before the end of the
semester. Any incomplete lab reports will result in an additional deduction
of 10 points from your final grade.
7. Before each lab, organize your
lab space and get all necessary instruments and reagents. Be aware of what
you and your lab partner(s) are doing- communicate. At the end of the lab,
return all supplies to their proper places. Clean you lab area with soap and
water. NO food and/or drink are allowed in lab.
8. Knowledge of the spreadsheet in
Excel and PowerPoint is essential in the lab reports and presentations. If
you are not familiar with these programs, please let me know.
9. PLEASE TURN YOUR
PHONE AND PAGER OFF DURING LECTURE. CELLS PHONES MAY NOT BE USED
DURING EXAMS.
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Practice-- core manipulative laboratory skills
necessary for this semester's laboratory sessions.
1. Accurate and precise use of a micropipette (cell
membrane and osmosis)
a. Choose the appropriate micropipette based on the volume to
be dispensed.
b. Set the micropipette to the required volume.
c. Correctly choose and load a pipette tip based on the
micropipette used.
d. Accurately and precisely deliver volumes using a
micropipette; aspirate and dispense.
e. Repeat.
2. Calculations of dilutions and preparation of
diluted samples of saline (glucose determination and enzyme lab).
a. Calculate the volume (V) or concentration [ ] of stock based
on the formula C1V1=C2V2 or another valid mathematical method.
b Make the dilution of stock by the accurate use of
dispensing equipment.
c. Appropriately mix and dispense the stock to make the
specified dilutions.
d. Complete four dilutions.
3. Accurate representation of data using a graph
(all labs).
a. Write an appropriate title for the curve.
b. Select an appropriate scale for all axes.
c. Correctly label all axes.
d. Include units of each axis (correct units and appropriate
style).
e. Accurately graph laboratory results.
f. Accurate describe trends in data.
4. Use of light microscope.
a. Set your microscope on a benchtop.
b. Switch on your microscope's light source.
c. Adjust the disk diaphragm (condenser) to
the largest hole diameter, allowing the greatest amount of light
through.
d. Place a microscope slide on the stage and then move the
slide until the specimen is under the objective lens.
e. Use the objective lens that gives the lowest magnification
first to focus your slide.
f. Adjust the larger, coarse focus knob until the specimen is
in focus.
g. Adjust the smaller, fine focus knob until the specimen is
clearly in focus. Then, adjust the diaphragm to get the best
lighting.
Start with the most light and gradually
lessen the light until the specimen image has clear, sharp contrast.
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LABORATORY SAFETY
Be safe! It is extremely
important for you to establish good safety practices when working in the lab.
Safety is a combination of common sense and familiarity with existing hazards
and potential dangers. Accidents in the lab are most often the result of
careless or improper handling of materials.
STUDENT RESPONSIBILITY AND
LABORATORY SAFETY RULES
1. At the beginning of the
first lab, know the location and proper use of the fire extinguishers, first
aid kit, and eye wash station.
2. Wear goggles or safety glasses
and gloves while you are working with solutions that are toxic, acidic or
caustic, and may splash into your
or your partner’s eyes.
3. No smoking, eating or drinking
is allowed in lab. Chemicals may enter your mouth and/or lungs. Your hands
may also be contaminated with toxic chemicals. Never taste or sniff a
chemical.
4. Dispose of all materials,
glassware, plastic-ware, needles, urine samples, and animals, in the proper
containers. Discard in the sink only nonhazardous, nonflammable, nontoxic,
water-soluble liquids. Water insoluble liquids, solids, hazardous/toxic
wastes, volatile liquids and reactive chemicals should be discarded in a
waste jar. Paper products should be discarded into wastebaskets
5. Acidic or basic chemicals
should be diluted before flushing down the sink. No solvent should be flushed
down the sink.
6. Report all accidents, even
minor ones to the instructor.
7. Unauthorized experiments and/or
variations of the lab experiments are not allowed.
8. Lab coats are not required but
are recommended. When working in lab, secure long hair and remove neckties
and scarves.
9. Always read the labels on the
reagent bottles very carefully. Avoid contaminating the stock solution- do
not return the excess chemicals to the reagent bottle. Transfer the stock
solution to a clean beaker using the pipette (with mechanical pipettor) from
the stock beaker. Always add more concentrated solution into water or into
less concentrated solution. The is especially true with concentrated acids.
10. Clean your work area and wash
your hands before you leave the lab.
STUDENTS VIOLATING ANY OF
THESE RULES WILL BE ASKED TO LEAVE THE LAB.
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METRIC SYSTEM
The agreed-upon system of
measurement used by scientists is the metric system. A major advantage of the
metric system is that it is based on units of 10. This allows rapid
conversion to workable numbers so that neither very large nor small numbers
need to be used in calculations. Measurements of length are based on the
meter (m), with prefixes of kilo, deci, centi, milli and micro. Dry
measurements are based on the gram (gm). The metric units of volume are the
liter (L).
To change from smaller units to
larger units, you must divide by the appropriate factors of 10. Conversely,
to convert from larger units to smaller ones, you must multiply by the
appropriate factor of 10, since there will be more of the smaller units.
Some equivalents are given below
to help you picture these units of length.
1 meter (m) is slightly longer
than one yard (1m = 39.37in.)
1 centimeter (cm) is approximately
the width of a piece of chalk. (2.54 cm = 1in.)
1 millimeter (mm) is approximately
the thickness of the wire of a paper clip.
1 micrometer (um) can be measured
only microscopically.
Answer the following questions:
1. Why is the metric system
better?
2. What is the metric unit for?
Length __________________________
Volume _________________________
Mass (weight) ____________________
Temperature _____________________
3. Make the following conversions
using the metric system:
|
355 cm =
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_________mm
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13 cm =
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____________mm
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150 Km =
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_________m
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1 mm =
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____________m
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2000 um =
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_________mm
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200 ul =
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____________ml
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2 L =
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_________ml
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3 dl =
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____________ml
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3 g =
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_________mg
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300 g =
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____________ug
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4000 ug =
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_________mg
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4000 ug =
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____________ g
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Designing an
experiment AND
Lab Reports
In designing an experiment, there
are specific facts and terms that you need to be familiar with, and questions
you need to answer:
1. Every variable (any factor that
might affect the outcome of the experiment) is under the control of the
experimenter.
a. Independent variables (one specific factor that is
varied)
b. Dependent variables (response, the value that we measure)
2. A control group is essential in
all experiments. This group is used as the control against which all other
experimental samples are compared.
Without the control group, the experiment is not valid.
3. Valid results require testing
to be done on large number of subjects. In many of our labs, we will pool
results from all the students, so every one has to participate.
4. For each experiment and lab
report, you need to ask yourself four questions:
A. Why was this experiment done?
1. Consider the background work that led to the
experiment.
2. State the hypothesis that you are trying to test.
B. How was this experiment done?
Methods and materials
C. What are the results?
1. Look at the raw
data. During experimentation and observation, data must be carefully and
accurately recorded. These data can be organized and manipulated to show more
clearly the outcome of the experimentation.
2. Quantitatively
analyze the data.
D. What do the results mean?
Discuss your interpretation of the data.
Draw a conclusion.
The Scientific Method
Most scientists use the scientific
method when they are investigating various aspects of their respective
disciplines. It is a logical way of approaching and solving problems. It is
comprised of five major steps:
1. Observation of phenomena
2. Statement of hypothesis-- Good hypothesis must meet several criteria:
a. They must be testable
b. They must be based on measurable, describable facts
c. They must not be anthropomorphic
3. Data collection
a. Qualitative- observations based on senses- taste, smell,
or touch
b. Quantitative- based on precise measurements
4. Manipulation and analysis of
data
a. Treatment of data- averages, range, etc.
b. Graphs or tables may display data
c. Making and reading graphs- independent variable- on X
axis
dependent variable- on Y axis
5. Reporting conclusions of the
study
a. Results are often only as good as the observation
techniques used.
b. Provide a description of the conclusions drawn from you
results
ORGAN SYSTEMS REVIEW
Levels of organization: The basic unit of all living organisms is the
cell. The cell is an organized entity; it has shape structure, and functions.
Their structures and functions can be categorized into four tissue types:
epithelial, muscular, nervous, and connective. An organ is two or more
tissues combine to perform a specific function for the body. For example, the
skin is composed of all four tissue types. An organ system is a group of
organs that act together to perform a specific body function. For example,
the organs of the cardiovascular system (the heart, blood vessels and blood)
work together to transport food, nutrients and wastes. There are a total of eleven
organ systems.
Objectives:
1. Name the organ systems; name
their major component organs and functions.
2. Dissect a mouse, and identify
the eleven organ systems.
Materials:
Dissecting pans and pins- 10
Scissors -10
Scalpels - 10
Forceps and twine
gloves - 10
Plastic bag for disposing animals
Procedures:
Anesthetize a mouse in an ether
jar. When the animal becomes totally unresponsive, hold on to the neck and
pull on the tail to sever the spinal cord. Pin the mouse to the wax pan by
placing its dorsal side down and pin its extremities to the wax. Lift the
abdominal skin and cut through it with scissors. Cut the skin along the body
midline, from the pubic region to the lower jaw. Make a lateral cut from the
midline to the axially area at the arms and legs. Pin the flaps to the tray.
Carefully cut through the muscles
of the abdominal wall in the pubic region, avoiding the underlying organs.
Make another lateral cut at the base of the rib cage. A thin muscle attached
to the inferior boundary of the rib cage is the diaphragm, which separates
the thoracic and abdominal cavities. Cut the diaphragm away to loosen the rib
cage, and observe the contents of the thoracic cavity.
Examine the following organs in
the thoracic area: heart, lungs, thymus, trachea, bronchi, esophagus, carotid
arteries, and vagus nerves.
Examine the following organs in
the abdominal area: stomach, inferior vena cava, descending aorta, small
intestine, mesentery, pancreas, spleen, liver, kidneys, adrenal glands,
ureter, urinary bladder, large intestine, cecum, rectum, anus, and the
reproductive organs (determine if the animal is male or female before
dissection).
Remove the pancreas and a small
piece of the stomach from the animal and place 0.1 to 0.2 grams of each
tissue in a 1.5 ml test tube and add 1 ml of the enzyme extraction buffer.
Pierce the tissue with a toothpick until it is dispersed. Cap the tube and
shake well for 3 minutes. Centrifuge the tube for 5 minutes and remove the
supernatant fraction (the liquid) with a pipet. Place this solution in a
clean 1.5 ml tube. Label the tube with your name and content- (pancreatic
extract, and stomach) and place the tube in the freezer for later experiment.
These tissue extracts will be used later in the semester.
Review:
Indicate the body systems that
perform the following functions for the body.
1. Rids the body of nitrogenous
wastes. _______________________________
2. Is affected by removal of the
thyroid gland. __________________________
3. Provides support and levers on
which the muscular system acts.___________
4. Includes the heart.
______________________________________________
5. Causes the onset of the
menstrual or estrous cycle. _____________________
6. Protects underlying organs from
drying out and from mechanical damage.
______________________________________________________________
7. Protects the body; destroys
bacteria and tumor cells. ____________________
8. Breaks down ingested food into
its building blocks. _____________________
9. Removes CO2 from the
blood. ______________________________________
10. Delivers O2 and
nutrients to the tissues. _____________________________
11. Moves the limbs; facilitates
facial expressions. ________________________
12. Converts body water or
eliminates excesses. __________________________
13. Controls the body by means of
chemical molecules called hormones.
________________________________________________________________
14. Is damaged when you cut your
finger or get a severe sunburn.
_____________
15. Composed of organs- kidneys,
bladder, ureters and urethra. ________________
16. Composed of organs- thymus,
spleen, and lymphatic vessels. ______________
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